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**NDVI = (NIR − Red) / (NIR + Red)** — developed by **Rouse et al. (1974)**, ranges **−1 to 1**. - **Well-vegetated** pixels have high values (NIR ≫ Red). - **Water / shadow** have negative values (Red > NIR). - **Rock, dry soil, senesced veg.** are near zero (Red ≈ NIR). - **On Landsat TM/ETM+:** NDVI = (B4 − B3) / (B4 + B3). On Landsat 8/9 OLI: (B5 − B4) / (B5 + B4).

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